8 Communication in Groups
Learning Objectives
Explain how meaning is constructed through symbols, cognition, and context rather than residing directly in words.
Describe language as a symbolic system, including the roles of abstraction, displacement, and shared cultural codes.
Distinguish between denotation and connotation and explain how definitions and interpretation influence communication.
Compare verbal and nonverbal communication in terms of structure, function, and their roles in conveying meaning.
Language and Meaning
The link between language and meaning is complex rather than direct. One reason for this complexity is the limitless nature of modern languages like English. Language is productive, meaning we can create endless expressions by combining existing words in new ways, and vocabulary continues to expand as new words are invented (Fromkin et al., 2020). While nonverbal communication contributes to meaning, it lacks the boundless flexibility of verbal language. Humans can produce only a limited number of gestures, but English alone contains hundreds of thousands of words, with many more in technical and specialized use (Crystal, 2018). With such vast potential, how does meaning emerge?
Meaning is created through the interaction of sensory input, cognitive processing, and external stimuli. It occurs between encoding and decoding, as individuals interpret sensory information rather than receiving meaning directly from words themselves (Adler et al., 2023). Because of this indirect process, language can easily lead to confusion, frustration, or humor. Even the word meaning itself has dozens of definitions. Since language and symbols are central to communication, it is important to examine them carefully rather than taking them for granted.
Language as a Symbolic System
Language is fundamentally symbolic. A symbol represents something else but does not physically resemble what it refers to (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011). Symbols can be spoken, written, or nonverbal, such as a wave to say hello. Unlike ancient hieroglyphs, modern language symbols usually have no visual connection to their referents. Symbols combine to form language systems, or codes; shared, culturally defined systems that help people organize and express meaning (Hall, 1976). There are roughly 6,000 spoken languages worldwide, many of which have no written form (Crystal, 2018). For much of human history, spoken language and nonverbal communication were the primary methods of interaction, and widespread literacy emerged only relatively recently.
Because symbols do not need to correspond directly to reality, humans can communicate abstract ideas. This ability, called displacement, allows us to discuss events removed from our immediate time or place (Yule, 2020). While animals communicate, their systems are limited and reactive, lacking the creativity and productivity of human language. Early human communication was less abstract and more closely tied to natural sounds. As societies shifted toward agriculture and population growth, more precise symbols became necessary to describe tools, processes, and ideas (Deacon, 1997). Before written language, physical objects were often used symbolically; for example, pebbles representing livestock.
The word calculate originates from the Latin calculus, meaning “pebble.” Early counting involved using stones to track quantities. While modern calculation no longer involves pebbles, the word preserves this historical connection (Crystal, 2018). As symbols became more abstract, communication became more efficient; but also more prone to misunderstanding.
The Triangle of Meaning
The triangle of meaning illustrates the relationship between a thought, a symbol, and a referent (Ogden & Richards, 1923). A thought is the mental concept, the symbol is the word used to express it, and the referent is the actual object or idea being referenced. The relationship between symbol and referent is indirect, which explains how misunderstandings occur. For instance, two people discussing getting a “dog” may share the same word and general idea yet imagine very different animals. Clarifying questions help align referents and reduce confusion. Understanding this indirect relationship encourages better communication through clarification and perception checking (Adler et al., 2023).
Definitions, Denotation, and Connotation
Definitions help narrow a word’s meaning, though abstract terms can still be difficult to define clearly. Words have both denotative and connotative meanings. Denotation refers to the dictionary definition agreed upon by language users, while connotation involves emotional, cultural, and experiential associations (Steinfatt et al., 2021). Some words have multiple denotations and are called polysemic, while others have only one meaning and are monosemic. Most everyday words are polysemic. Even monosemic words can carry different connotations. Cultural influences also shape connotations, sometimes creating powerful myths, such as the symbolic meaning of the cowboy in American culture (Barthes, 1972). Because the relationship between symbols and meaning is arbitrary, language must be learned. We associate symbols with referents through repeated exposure and guidance (Yule, 2020). In addition to learning words, we also acquire grammar rules that allow us to form meaningful sentences.
Rules of Language
Grammar consists of rules that organize words into understandable patterns. While these rules help ensure clarity, they are not inherently “right” or “wrong”; their authority comes from collective agreement among language users (Fromkin et al., 2020). Language rules provide structure while still allowing creativity, play, and adaptation. Meaning ultimately resides in people, not words, as demonstrated by slang, secret codes, and evolving language use (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011).
Language Acquisition
Language acquisition is the process through which people learn to understand, produce, and use language. This process is influenced by biological, cognitive, and social factors (Clark, 2016). Infants begin acquiring language long before speaking their first words, learning patterns of interaction through observation and practice. Key milestones include sensitivity to tone, babbling, gesture use, word recognition, and early conversational patterns. By the end of the first year, infants possess many foundational speech skills. Language development continues through early childhood and adolescence, with vocabulary and expressive abilities expanding throughout life (Owens, 2020). Language abilities can be affected by illness or trauma, and communication disorders are studied within the field of communication sciences and disorders. Speech-language pathologists help individuals develop or regain communication skills, reinforcing the idea that effective communication is a fundamental human right (ASHA, 2023).
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication refers to the creation of meaning through behaviors other than words (Burgoon et al., 2016). Verbal and nonverbal communication are interconnected processes that operate simultaneously, though they differ in structure, processing, and function. Research suggests that verbal communication is primarily associated with the left hemisphere of the brain, while nonverbal communication relies more heavily on the right hemisphere (Knapp et al., 2014). Evidence comes from brain-injury studies showing that right-hemisphere damage impairs facial-expression recognition, while left-hemisphere damage disrupts language abilities. Interestingly, individuals who lose speech may still be able to sing, as musical expression is largely right-hemisphere-based. Nonverbal communication excels at conveying emotions and relational meaning, while verbal communication is more effective for detailed information. Nonverbal systems lack formal grammar and dictionaries, making them more ambiguous but also more emotionally powerful (Burgoon et al., 2016).
Principles and Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication developed earlier than verbal communication and is more biologically rooted, whereas verbal communication is primarily culturally learned (Knapp et al., 2014). Because nonverbal communication is processed by older brain structures, it tends to be more instinctive and less consciously controlled. Although early studies overstated claims that most meaning is nonverbal, contemporary research shows that nonverbal cues dominate emotional and relational interpretation (Burgoon et al., 2016). When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, people tend to trust nonverbal signals more. Nonverbal communication is also less consciously controlled and therefore often perceived as more honest. Facial expressions appear even in individuals blind from birth, reinforcing their biological basis (Ekman, 2003). Nonverbal communication serves key functions: conveying meaning, influencing others, regulating interaction, shaping relationships, and expressing identity. Immediacy behaviors such as eye contact, smiling, and open posture enhance rapport, while artifacts, appearance, and use of space communicate identity and social roles (Knapp et al., 2014).
Close Reading Questions
- Trace the origin and historical development (etymology) of a word, similar to how calculate was examined in the reading. Explain how the word’s meaning—the symbol—has evolved as it has moved away from its original sense. Two particularly interesting words to explore are hazard and phony.
- Apply the triangle of meaning (thought, symbol, and referent) to a recent communication in which different referents caused a misunderstanding. Describe what steps you could have taken to prevent or resolve the confusion.
- Identify words that carry strong connotations for you. How do these connotations differ from their denotations? In what ways might your connotations differ from those of other people?
Discussion Questions
- To gain a deeper understanding of nonverbal communication, think of an example that illustrates each of the four principles discussed in the reading:
• Nonverbal communication often conveys more meaning than verbal communication.
• Nonverbal communication tends to be less intentional than verbal communication.
• Nonverbal communication is frequently more ambiguous than verbal communication.
• Nonverbal communication is often perceived as more credible than verbal communication. - When you receive a mixed message in which spoken words and nonverbal cues conflict, which do you rely on more to interpret the message, and why?
- Our appearance, clothing choices, and physical environments—such as a dorm room, apartment, car, or office—communicate nonverbal information about who we are. Examine the nonverbal messages conveyed by your personal presentation or surroundings. What impressions do they create, and do they align with how you want to be perceived?
Reflection Questions
- In Jené Gutierrez’s article, “bell hooks and the Extraordinary Power of Names,” Gutierrez argues that “the power of names is intricately woven into the fabric of our individual and social identities.” In what ways is your first and/or last name connected to your sense of identity? After reading the article, respond to the following prompts:
- Research your name. This research may be formal—such as investigating the origin or meaning of your name—or personal, such as learning why your name was chosen. Where does your name come from? What does it mean? How did it become your name, and why was it selected for you?
- Reflect on the significance your name has had throughout your life. How has it shaped the way others perceive or treat you? How has it influenced your understanding of yourself and your identity?
- Gutierrez concludes the article with the statement: “Sensitivity to language is responsibility to language, and respect for its power to call forth whatever is summoned by its use. The effects of language matter. We can start by speaking to each other by the names that we choose.” What are your thoughts on this statement and the article as a whole? How did researching and reflecting on your name connect to or deepen your understanding of the article’s message?
References
Adler, R. B., Rodman, G., & du Pré, A. (2023). Understanding human communication (15th ed.). Oxford University Press.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2023). Scope of practice in speech-language pathology. ASHA.
Barthes, R. (1972). Mythologies. Hill and Wang.
Burgoon, J. K., Guerrero, L. K., & Floyd, K. (2016). Nonverbal communication. Routledge.
Clark, E. V. (2016). First language acquisition (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. (2018). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Deacon, T. W. (1997). The symbolic species. W. W. Norton.
Ekman, P. (2003). Emotions revealed. Times Books.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2020). An introduction to language (12th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Anchor Books.
Knapp, M. L., Hall, J. A., & Horgan, T. G. (2014). Nonverbal communication in human interaction (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (2011). Theories of human communication (10th ed.). Waveland Press.
Ogden, C. K., & Richards, I. A. (1923). The meaning of meaning. Harcourt, Brace & World.
Owens, R. E. (2020). Language development: An introduction (10th ed.). Pearson.
Steinfatt, T. M., et al. (2021). Communication: Concepts and contexts. Cognella.
Yule, G. (2020). The study of language (7th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
